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Elephant feet in zoos need regular inspection. This chapter describes in 6 steps foot care can be addressed. Attention is paid to the nails, the pad, sole, cuticles andd the normal appearence of a health elephant foot. Back to lameness Regular foot care in zoo elephants: a practical guidance Written by Christian & Linda Schiffmann (Edit. Willem Schaftenaar) Definition Regular foot care means the functional trimming of an elephant's distal limb to prevent overgrowth of its key structures, including nail, pad, and cuticle). Aims Prevent overgrowth and the resulting changes. Maintain the foot structures in their physiological shape to support normal function, especially proper weight bearing and distribution). Figure 1. Conditions to be avoided through regular foot care: a) overgrown nails; b) overgrown pad; c) narrow interdigital space; d) overgrown and frayed cuticles Preconditions & tools Conditions and tools required: comfortable position for elephant and keeper/vet (Fig. 2), adequate light conditions, tools (Fig. 3), time and staff (at least two persons). Figure 2. Proper positioning of the foreleg (a) and hindleg (b) under the conditions of protected contact. Note: The custom-made constructions out of steel (a), or out of steel & wood (b) are facilitating a position enabling access to every aspect of the foot. Figure 3. Appropriate tools for regular foot care: a) rasp b) hoof knives in various shapes c) Swiss hoof knife, only to be used with great care! d) side cutter pliers e) set of wood carving knives e) General notes: Be aware of the potential harmful aspect of any tool. In particular less experienced persons are at risk of cutting too deep into the horn layer. This risk is increased by using the Swiss hoof knife due to its angle. Before using any tool on an elephant´s foot, the person doing the trim should have become familiar with the tool handling. We discourage the use of an electric angle grinder. Due to the high power of this tool, only experienced persons (if even) will be able to use it safely. In addition it has been speculated whether the occurring heat may have a negative impact on the tissues (Wendler et al. 2021). If applied despite this warning, an adjustable rotation speed and a serrated washer with appropriate grain size (“40” corresponding to a metric size of the grains of around 0.62mm) are of utmost importance to reduce heat development and the risk of injuries. Foot pedicure Always start a pedicure session by thoroughly cleaning the foot. By getting rid of as much dirt as possible, the tools will remain sharp for longer. Thorough cleaning can be accomplished by the use of a brush. There are four steps of pedicure in accordance with the four critical structures of the elephant foot: the nail the pad the interdigital space the cuticle The sequence of these steps is not mandatory, although a systematic approach is strongly recommended. Step 1 - Nails Shorten the solar part of the nails, check the surface of the horn wall, and bring the nail in its specific shape. Sole part of the nail: what to go for? (Tools: rasp, hoof knife) Figure 4. The solar aspect of the nail must be shortened as far as possible (a) to avoid weight bearing in standing position (b). The color and consistence of the solar horn of the nail are indicative of the appropriate depth. The deeper you go, the paler & softer the nail tissue becomes. Stop at a level where the solar horn is still firm upon palpation and no bleeding occurs. By trimming carefully, you will recognize the small vessels shining through the solar horn before bleeding occurs. a) P4 in right hind foot of a female Asian elephant, 39 yr-old; b) right hind foot of an adult Asian elephant © PS Nail wall: what to go for? (Tools: rasp, hoof knife) Figure 5. The superficial layer of the nail wall should be visually checked for discolorations that are indicative of underlying issues. The surface layer should not be removed (do not rasp!). Keep the nail in its physiological shape by only rasping/cutting the solar part of the nail (see also Step 3 on the interdigital space). Avoid rounding the edge of the nail, as that may make the white line thinner (P3 in right forefoot of a male Asian elephant, 3 yr-old). Step 2 - Pad Check the pad and eliminate flaps if required (and if feasible with respect to the nails). The natural profile of the pad as seen in healthy free-ranging elephants should be the goal (figure 6c). Pad: what to go for? (Tools: hoof knife (Swiss knife)) Figure 6. a) Trimmed pad (right hind foot) of a 39 yr-old female Asian elephant kept in a zoo. Only a minimum of sulci with a pattern of sulci is present. b) Right hind foot of a 10 yr-old male Asian elephant, cleaned to ensure there is no debris or undetermined tissue remaining. In a healthy elephant pad a clear profile covers the entire surface of the pad. c) right hind foot of a semi-captive female Asian elephants kept on natural forest grounds; note the extreme difference between the pads of the zoo-kept elephant (6a and 6b) and the pad of an elephant kept under natural environmental conditions! When conditions as seen in a & b are present, the management conditions regarding floor and substrate need urgent improvement (e.g. replace concrete by sand). Step 3- Interdigital spaces Clean and widen the interdigital spaces till you can put one finger between the nails (both the solar and the wall side) and widen the interdigital spaces (both the solar and the cranial aspect) Interdigital space: w hat to go for? (Tools: hoof knife, rasp) Figure 7. A wide, clean and dry interdigital space in both the solar (a) and wall (b) aspect. a) P3/P4 of the right hindfoot of a 41 yr-old female Asian elephant; b) P2/P3 of the right forefoot of a 10 yr-old female African elephant. Note: The edges of the nails in b) are more rounded than we recommend here. Rounding may weaken the white line of the nail. Step 4 - Cuticles Shorten the cuticle and remove debris and dirt from the nail bed. Cuticles: what to go for? (Tools: hoof knive, small wood carving knife) Figure 8. Evenly trimmed cuticle and clean nail bed area. P3 of the right hindfoot in a 10 yr-old male Asian elephant. Step 5 - Evaluation Check all structures while the elephant is standing and walking. In particular make sure that the nail wall is not weight bearing while standing and the joint movements during the walking phase are smooth. In case you are not happy with the result, go back to Step 1-4 depending on your observation. Figure 9. After completion of a foot trim, take the time to check thoroughly every structure while the elephant is standing and walking. Be particularly focused on the weight distribution. (hindfeet of an 18 yr-old female Asian elephant, right foot trimmed). Note: The edges of the nails of the right foot are more rounded than we recommend here. Rounding may weaken the white line of the nail. Step 6 - Record keeping Accurate documentation of each elephant’s foot condition is strongly recommended. It supports reassessment and helps confirm progress, especially during long-term treatment or when changes occur. Species-specific documentation forms were provided by Benz (2005), and a more objective method for scoring and monitoring foot health was described by Ertl et al. (2020). A thorough routine documentation of each nail and the pad is recommended (see Fig. 10). Examination form for African elephant feet (Benz, 2005) Click here to download the form Examination form for Asian elephant feet (Benz, 2005) Click here to download the form Practical notes: -Always keep your tools clean and sharpened. -When trimming the nails, consider the specific shape of each nail and the corresponding differences between front and rear foot. -In case of bleeding: keep calm and ensure disinfection with a wound disinfectant (e.g. chlorhexidine or povidone iodide). -Keep in mind that pedicure might not always be fun for the elephant. Therefore, do your very best to make the procedure as comfortable as possible for the elephant and make use of positive reinforcement training (Fig. 11). Figure 11. Foot care tools ready for use. Note: A variety of rewards can be very helpful in a training approach based on positive reinforcement. Additional recommendations to continuously ensure foot health in zoo elephants: -Do twice daily thorough washing (using moderate pressure) of the distal limb covering the four critical structures (nail, pad, interdigital space, cuticle) in order to reduce the negative impact of urine contamination. Elephant urine is a keratolytic substance and may cause significant alterations particularly in the pad. This negative impact can be significantly reduced through a consistent moderate pressure washing routine. In addition, this routine ensures daily monitoring of an elephant’s foot conditions. -Conduct daily inspection of all foot structures (ideally after pressure washing) -Encourage normal wearing of the foot structures through natural behaviors: walking on soft substrates, limited walking on abrasive surfaces, digging, processing of browse/branches (Fig. 12). -Avoid extended standing on hard substrates (e.g. feeding places, night quarters). -Provide soft substrates for lying rest of adequate duration. Figure 12. Digging in a sandy substrate enables a very natural wear & peeling of the horn wall, the interdigital space and the cuticles. References Benz A (2005). The elephant´s hoof: Macroscopic and microscopic morphology of defined locations under consideration of pathological changes. Veterinär-Anatomisches Institut der Vetsuisse-Fakultät. Zürich, Switzerland, Universität Zürich. Inaugural-Dissertation. Ertl N, Wendler P, Sós E, Flügger M, Schneeweis F, Schiffmann C, Hatt JM, Clauss M (2020) Theory of medical scoring systems and a practical method to evaluate Asian elephant (Elephas maximus ) foot health in European zoos. Animal Welfare 29:163-176. Nigam, P., Sarma, K.K., Kumar S. and Pandey, R. (Eds.) 2025. Healthy Feet, Healthy Elephants: A Guide to Foot Care in Captive Asian Elephants . Project Elephant Division, MoEF&CC, GoI- Wildlife Institute of India. Wendler P, Ertl N, Flügger M, Sós E, Clauss M, Hatt JM (2021) Foot care in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus ) in European zoos. Der Zoologische Garten 89:103-119.

This page directs you to reference values of blood parameters, hematology, blood chemistry, progesterone assays, serum banking, urine analysis, and fecal examination. Laboratory diagnosis Hematology Serum/plasma chemistry Reference values blood Banking Serum Urinalysis Progesterone analysis Fecal quality control

This page describes an intoxicationnwith the plant Dieffenbachia, causing obvious pain reactions in the oral cavity of an adult Asian elephant in a zoo. The symptomes disppeared after several hours. Continue To intoxication Case report Dieffenbachia intoxication Place: Date: 2019, July Data provided by: History A 12 years old Asian elephant in a zoo showed sudden symptoms: standing still with its mouth widely open, tongue pressed cranially, frequent urinating small amounts of urine. The other elephants at the zoo remained normal. Differential diagnose: tongue in contact with setae (hairs )of the caterpillar of the oak processionary (Thaumetopoea processionea ); oak leaves had been fed during the preceeding week; insect sting in the oral cavity, eaten from an unknown irritating substance; urethra obstruction by urinary stones. Treatment No treatment was given, as the cause of the intoxication was found soon: one of the ornamental plants outside the enclosure showed clear signs of having been chewed on: Dieffenbachia sp. Treatment results The symptoms disappeared within several hours after onset. Dieffenbachia species To page top

Dystocia is quite common in older elephants and can be associated with old age at first calving, uterine inertia, fetal overweight, intra-uterine death, malposition, malformation, psychological and physical factors or tumors. Retention of the fetus has been described. Dystocia Text by Willem Schaftenaar Obstructed labor, also known as labor dystocia, can be defined as the condition in which the fetus is unable to pass through the birth canal because the passage is physically blocked. As per definition, the birth process has already started, indicated by the drop of blood progesterone to base-line level. This hormonal change should be followed by labor activities within about 3 days. The longer this period takes, the higher the chances are that a dystocia will develop. Monitoring the birth process using transrectal ultrasonographic examination is of great importance, especially in older elephants. Click here to read more about the normal birth process. In elephants, the main causes for dystocia are: Insufficient dilatation of the vaginal vestibulum due to lack of elasticity of the skin that covers the vaginal vestibulum; Malposition Intra-uterine fetal death Relatively too large fetus Uterine inertia (physical and psychological) Too small pelvis of the dam Intra-uterine death Retained fetus T umors/cysts 1. Insufficient dilatation of the vaginal vestibulum due to lack of elasticity of the skin that covers the vaginal vestibulum. This is probably the major cause of dystocia and stillbirth in older elephants getting their first calf. Whether this is caused by insufficient production of estrogens, is unknown. Once the major part of the calf's body has entered the vertical part of the birth canal, the contractions of the uterus have very little (if any) influence on the propulsion of the calf. Gravity force has taken over the forces produced by uterine contractions. In this position, the umbilical cord may have ruptured already or might be compressed, as the calf is literally squeezed into a narrow space. The author has assisted in at least 5 dystocia cases caused by this phenomenon. Too narrow birth canal in an aged nulliparous elephant resulted in the suffocation of the calf in the vertical part of the vaginal vestibulum. Courtesy: Dak Lak Elephant Conservation Center. 2. Malposition is another important cause of dystocia similar to other mammalian species. The malposition may be caused after the calf died in the uterus. This happened in a 29 yr-old Asian elephant when the umbilical cord was twisted twice around the first presenting leg of her calf. As a result, the calf got stuck in a horizontal position, unable to make the necessary longitudinal twist-movement when entering the vaginal vestibulum. Click here to read this case report. 3. Intra-uterine fetal death can be the result of a fatal infection, e.g. cowpox, salmonellosis or any other form of septicemia. Usually there has been a known episode of illness of the dam during her pregnancy. 4. A relatively too large fetus can result in stagnation of the parturition. In several zoos the birth weight of the calves is too high. The body weight of a newborn calf should not exceed 120 kg. Lack of movement and/or an unbalanced diet are the main reasons for overweight of the new born. 5. Uterine inertia can play an important role in stagnation of the birth process. Exhaustion of the uterine muscle is a form of physiological uterine inertia. It can be induced by repeated administration of (high) doses of oxytocin, which has been reported anecdotally several times. Like in horses, elephants may react on environmental disturbances during the birth process by ceasing labor activities. Hypocalcemia can result in a decrease of the uterine muscle contractions. The author has noticed at multiple occasions, that intravenous infusion of 1-2 liter calcium-magnesium borogluconate increased the strength of the contractions. This was confirmed by transrectal ultrasound examination: the position of the uterus in the abdomen was higher than before the infusion. Monitoring blood calcium levels, and more specifically the ionized calcium concentration, should be part of the monitoring of the birth process. The ionized calcium levels should be around 1.25–1.30 mmol/L (van der Kolk, 2008). Finally, excessive body weight and/or lack of exercise of the dam can possibly play a negative role on the uterine fitness. 6. If the p elvis of the dam too small , the fetus may get stuck even before entering the birth canal. The author assisted a unsuccessful fetotomy in an Asian elephant with a relatively small pelvic diameter. The procedure failed, as the fetus's body could not be reached through the episiotomy -opening. 7. Intra-uterine death of the fetus can result in abnormal position of the fetus. Like in other mammalian species, the fetus should actively collaborate with the labor activities of the dam. If a leg or the head is not stretched at the right time, this may cause complete obstruction of the passage. The author has witnessed that rotation along the longitudinal axis of a dead calf (after creating access through episiotomy) resulted in the easy passage of the calf. Figure 1 shows that the calf rotated along its longitudinal axis on its way through the birth canal. Figure 1. Natural rotation along the longitudinal axis facilitated the birth of this healthy Asian elephant calf. 8. Retained fetus Retention of a dead fetus is not uncommon in elephants. It has been reported in African and Asian elephants kept in captivity. No study has been done on the mechanisms that lead to fetal retention. When the blood progesterone level drops to its baseline at the end of pregnancy, parturition should follow within a few days. The length of the period between baseline progesterone values and the actual birth of the calf is not known. However, following the expected physiological pattern of the birth process in other mammalians, birth should take place in about three days, though there are exceptions of calves being born alive after as long as 14 days. If the period of low progesterone levels exceeds 2 weeks, we can call it a prolonged pregnancy or fetal retention. The chances for the calf to survive a prolonged pregnancy are assumed to be low. To date, reported cases of prolonged pregnancies range from 3 to 60 months. Fetal membranes may or may not remain intact. In contrast to other mammalian species, the fetus is not always affected by microbial contamination. Sterile mummification can result in the conservation of the dead fetal carcass, due to the specific anatomy of the birth canal: the total length of the vaginal vestibulum ranges from 1-1,4 m, including a long vertical part and long horizontal part. In one case (Thitaram, 2006) the hind legs were macerated, while the anterior part of the calf (in anterior presentation!) was well conserved. Labour activities occurring around the expected calving date may have been missed. In 1 case (zoo-born 37 yr-old Asian elephant, 6th calf), vague signs of a birth process, including colic-like symptoms were observed 1 day after progesterone blood levels returned to its baseline level (Schaftenaar, 2013). From that moment the birth canal was ultrasonographically monitored. No changes were noted until 13 days later, when ultrasound examination confirmed partial relaxation of the cervix (13.7 mm, figure 2). In the following days the cervix closed again and remained closed until the final birth process started 13 months later. The mummified calf was removed by total fetotomy . The cause of the stagnation of the birth process could be explained by the congenital arthrogryposis of the calf's legs. This dam survived in good health for another 15 years, when it was euthanized because of chronic degenerative joint disease. At necropsy, the wall of the uterus appeared very thick and there was a known fistula (1 mm diameter) in the skin covering the vaginal vestibulum. No other remnants of the fetotomy were observed. Figure 2. Transrectal ultrasonographic examination of the Asian elephant shows the partial relaxation of the cervix uteri, with a 13.7 mm diameter of the cervix canal. Interestingly, the mother of the previous elephant also suffered a fetal retention of her 5th calf at the age of 38 years. This fetus probably died around 18 months of gestation due to severe illness of the dam. A pyometra was suspected based on the white-yellowish vaginal discharge, which at times contained pieces of (assumed) macerated tissue. The dam was humanely euthanized. Post-mortem examination showed massive adhesions between the uterus and the abdominal wall and the spleen, which probably prevented the uterus from contracting and expelling the dead foetus. After its death the fetus remained in the uterus for another 33 months (Pers. comm. Carsten Gröhndal, 2005). Repeated fetal retentions occurred in a herd of African elephants kept in one zoo. Over a period of 11 years, one female retained four female fetuses, sired by the same bull, while another female from the same herd, but sired by a different bull, retained one female fetus. The retention period ranged from 6-19 months. The calf on this photo was 6 months overdue. (Courtesy Colchester Zoo) One episiotomy or vaginal vestibulotomy after fetal retention in a 32 yr-old nulliparous Asian elephant in Thailand has been published (Thitaram, 2006). Four months before the expected birth, loss of vaginal fluid with necrotic pieces of amnion tissue was noticed. Twelve months later, the animal showed clear signs of signs of labor. As the fetus got stuck in the birth canal, a successful episiotomy was performed. Two cases of fetal retention that were successfully handled by episiotomy with manual traction in Nepal were mentioned in a short communication in the journal Gajah. No further details were provided (Mandal, 2013). 9. Tumors/cysts Tumors in the reproductive organs of female elephants are not uncommon. Leiomyomas are the most frequently found tumors. As they are associated with the uterine muscles, large leiomyomas can reduce the power of the uterine contractions. Due to the space they may occupy in the uterus, these tumors usually reduce the chances for a pregnancy and may result in early stage abortion rather than palying a role in retention of the fetus. In nulliparous cows >30 years of age, vaginal cysts can become so extensive that they fill the entire vaginal lumen, which may block the passage of the fetus. A 26 kg lipoma, situated on the peritoneal side of the uterus in a 22 yr-old Asian elephant in a European zoo had restricted the intra-uterine movement of the hind legs of the fetus, which resulted in ankylosis of those legs. As a consequence, the fetus could not be delivered and remained stuck inside the uterus. During the birth process the uterus ruptured and the dam was humanely euthanized (Figure 3 and 4; the lipoma was located outside within the red circle; photos taken by the author). Figure 3 Figure 4 No doubt that there are more conditions that are resulting in dystocia. Much is still unknown and many cases have not been reported. More information has been provided by Hermes et al. (Hermes, 2008). Dealing with dystocia Much depend on the degree of training of the elephant. If the animal is not trained for any medical intervention (e.g. blood collection, rectal examination), any diagnostic procedure or curative treatment must be done under standing sedation . Elephants that are trained for rectal examination should be monitored by ultrasound examination on a daily base once the progesterone level has dropped to baseline value. Ultrasound examination is the most important diagnostic tool to get data of the phase of the birth process. Click here to read more about the parturition process and the options for treatment of dystocia. References Hermes R, Saragusty J, Schaftenaar W, Göritz F, Schmitt DL, Hildebrandt TB. 2008. Obstetrics in elephants. Theriogenology 70 (2008) 131–144. van der Kolk JH, van Leeuwen JPTM, van den Belt AJM, van Schaik RHN, Schaftenaar W. Subclinical hypocalcaemia in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus ). Vet Rec 2008;162(15):475–9. Madal RK, and Khadka KK. 2013. Health Status of Captive Asian Elephants in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. 2013. Rabindra Kumar Mandal et al. Gajah 39, page 38. Schaftenaar W. 2013. Delayed postpartum fetotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus ). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 44(1): 130–135, 2013. Thitaram C, Pongsopawijit P, Thongtip N, Angkavanich T, Chansittivej S, Wongkalasin W, Somgird C, Suwankong N, Prachsilpchai W, Suchit K, Clausen B, Boonthong P, Nimtrakul K, Niponkit C, Siritepsongklod S, Roongsri R, Mahasavankul S. 2006. Dystocia following prolonged retention of a dead fetus in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus ) Theriogenology 66 (2006) 1284–1291. To page top

Intramuscular, subcutaneous, intravenous and epidural injection techniques are described in this chapter. To procedures Injection techniques Hand injections Intramuscular injection: Subcutaneous injection: Intravenous injection: Epidural injection: An epidural injection in elephants is recommended when a vaginal vestibulotomy is performed in order to reduce tail movements of the elephant and provide additional analgesia in the perineal region. Procedure: Restrain the elephant as appropriate in a chute and sedated if necessary. Disinfect the injection site. Move the tail up and down to determine the position of the most mobile intercoccygeal space. Inject local anaesthetic (2% Lidocaine) into the skin over the injection site. Palpate the intercoccygeal space wearing a sterile glove and insert the needle (14 gauge, 3 inch) at approximately a 60 - 70 degree angle cranially. The epidural space is about 6.5 cm below the skin surface. Inject Lidocaine : 30 ml was sufficient to produce tail relaxation in a 3,000 kg elephant, and the elephant remained standing. Remote injections Make your own blow dart Blow dart injection: Jam-stick injection: Dart gun injection: To page top

Preventive medicine in elephants include several vaccinations foot care, monitoring for EEHV and tuberculosis and fecal check for parasites Preventive Medicine EEHV Monitoring Fecal check Foot care Tuberculosis γ-interferon testing Tuberculosis DPP tesing Vaccination To page top

Description of a surgical repair of a perineal hernia in an Asian elephant in Myanmar. Oo Z.M., et al. 2016 Surgical treatment of a cervico-vaginal prolapse in an Asian elephant in Myanmar. Gajah 44, 36-39 To perineal hernia Case report Perineal hernia, surgical repair Date: 2016 Place: Myanmar Data provided by: Gajah History A 47 years old captive female Asian elephant, working in the logging industry, displayed a large bulging mass below the tail since 10 years, which increased in diameter from 4 inches to 22 inches. At ultrasonographic examination it was diagnosed as a cervico-vaginal prolaps. Better described as perineal hernia with cervico-vaginal involvement (WS). The elephant did not suffer of any limitations in relationship to this condition. Previous cases in other female elephants of the company had died of this condition. As the mass was increasing in size, it was decided to perform a correcting surgery. At the time of surgery the animal was in healthy condition. Read the article in Gajah Treatment A standing sedation procedure with xylazine and ketamine was used. A incision of the skin and the vaginal vestibule was made 7 inches lateral to the perineal midline, allowing manual passage to explore the subcutaneous area. A catheter (1/4 inch diameter) was advanced into the uterus (or was it into the urthra?) and the uterus (bladder?) could be drained. The catheter was replaced by a larger catherter (½ inch) and more fluid, which contained several stones was drained. The the cervix uteri and the vagina (bladder?) were pushed back into the p elvic cavity through the herniated pelvic diafragm using the arm that was advanced into the vagina . The vaginal vestibule was closed using a continuous catgut suture. The skin was closed using 3 continuous nylon matrass sutures. At each knot a protecting plastic plate was placed underneath the knot to protect the skin from perforation by the nylon suture. Finally, a wooden block with a foamy protection layer was tightly tied to the (formerly) bulging area using ropes around the elephants body. Treatment results The ropes and the supporting block remained in place and the hernia did not recur between surgery and publication of this paper. However, it is not know for how long this animal stayed without recurrence. Complete report: Oo Z.M., et al. 2016 Surgical treatment of a cervico-vaginal prolapse in an Asian elephant in Myanmar. Gajah 44, 36-39 To page top

This page directs you to the following case reports about botulism, Dieffenbachia and paraquat intoxication in elephants. To non-infectious diseases Intoxication Botulism Dieffenbachia intoxication Paraquat intoxication Kodo millet intoxication Reference values toxicology

This incomplete case report describes an intoxication of 7 Asian elephants with paraquat, resulting in ulcerations of oral mucosa, tongue, skin of the trunk foot and cuticles. Kodo millet poisoning in elephants is also described on this page. To intoxication Diagnostic notes The diagnose of paraquat intoxication was based on the information provided by the care taker and the symptomes as described above. Background information Paraquat intoxication in humans ( CDC | Facts about Paraquat ): Paraquat is a toxic chemical that is widely used as an herbicide (plant killer), primarily for weed and grass control. Paraquat causes direct damage when it comes into contact with the lining of the mouth, stomach, or intestines. After paraquat enters the body, it is distributed to all areas of the body. Paraquat causes toxic chemical reactions to occur throughout many parts of the body, primarily the lungs, liver, and kidneys. Cells in the lung selectively accumulate paraquat likely by active transport. Immediately after ingestion: pain and swelling of the mouth and throat. Severe gastrointestinal symptoms, followed by dehydration, low blodd pressure. Ingestion of small amounts may result in: Heart failure Kidney failure Liver failure Lung scarring Medical managment of paraquat ingestion in humans: Medical management of paraquat ingestion - PubMed (nih.gov) To page top Case report Paraquat intoxication Date: 2020/2021 Location: Thailand History A ... years old female Asian elephant that was kept as ....................(tourist camp, working camp, zoo, rehab camp. etc...) was exposed to the toxic chemical Paraquat in her mouth, trunk, and ankle area. The animal developed the following symptoms: u lcerations of oral mucosa, tongue, skin of the trunk foot and cuticles, hyperemia................... Appetite: (food, water intake) General symptoms: Behaviour: Treatment When the animal was brought to the Veterinary clinic, the following treatment was initiated: Turmeric .................. .................... Treatment results When were the forst improvements recovered Application of turmeric powder on the skin lesions The photos on the left show the lesions after 1 month treatment; the photos on the right were taken 10 days later. Foraging elephants poisoned by paraquat PUBLISHED : 5 MAR 2021 AT 16:01 CHIANG MAI: Seven elephants suffered serious burns to their mouths and tongues from eating grass contaminated with the herbicide paraquat at a border village in Omkoi district. Five of them were reported to be in critical condition. The paraquat poisoning occured at Khorphator village late on Thursday night. The domesticated elephants had been set free to forage for food, and ate the grass at nearby farms which had been sprayed with the banned chemical. Veterinarians and rescue workers were rushed to help after the elephants' distress was reported to Chiang Mai University’s Centre for Elephant and Wildlife Research and to the Kusol Songkhor rescue foundation. It took several hours for the team to reach the remote village, which is near the border. The vets examined the animals and diagnosed paraquat poisoning. The chemical had caused severe burning around their mouths and to the animals' tongues. They cleaned the injuries and gave the elephants anti-inflammatories. Five of them were diagnosed in critical condition. They were being trucked to the Elephant Hospital in Lampang for further treatment, the Thai Elephant Alliance announced on its Facebook page. The Centre for Elephant and Wildlife Research said the first three had already arrived at the hospital. The others were expected to arrive on Friday evening. The use of paraquat is illegal in Thailand. The NHSC issued a resolution banning the use of paraquat and chlorpyrifos in agriculture, effective from June 1 last year. Farmers' groups have lobbied strongly against the ban , arguing they have no alternative chemicals for insect and weed control. Many continue to use them. Three of the seven poisoned elephants arrive at the Elephant Hospital in Lampang for urgent treatment, after paraquat contaminated grass at a border village in Omkoi district, Chiang Mai. (Photo: Phanumet Tanraksa). The image on the right shows the severe lesions on the tongue of one of the affected elephants. Close-up image of the severe lesions on the tongue of one of the affected elephants. To page top Kodo millet intoxication (Cyclopiazonic acid ) Kodo millett (Vargu) Paspalum scrobiculatum has been reported to be responsible for the deaths of free-ranging elephants in India. The crop is grown in India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and West Africa. Under certain circumstances, seeds may become infected with a fungus Claviceps paspali that produces a very stable mycotoxin (Cyclopiazonic Acid Toxicity) similar in action to ergot. Toxicity studies have shown degeneration, necrosis, and liver dysfunction, lesions of the myocardium, by affecting calcium signalling in the heart, leading to cardiomyocyte damage and impaired heart function as some of the symptoms. Symptomes Usually the elephants are found dead or moribund. Diagnosis The food source which contains sclerotia of the fungus needs to be found to get to a probability diagnosis. The presence of mycotoxins can be confirmed in the lab. In one outbreak of a Kodo millet intoxication in 13 elephants, Cyclopiazonic acid was detected in all samples of lever, kidney, spleen, heart, lung, stomach, and intestinal contents with concentration above 100ppb (parts per billion) in 10 dead elephants suspected of kodo-millet intoxication Treatment/Prevention If the intake of toxic food has taken place only a few hours before the animal was found, gastric lavage should be considered. Large borehole tubes should be used and a suction pump with sufficient capacity to wash the toxic products out of the stomach. In the mean time, the elephant should be protected from self-inflicted injuries if the animal is recumbent. Food and fresh water should be supplied if the animal is still capable of taking food and drinking. References Vet Med Small Anim Clin 72(4):633–637. 29. Morris, R.C. 1935. Death of 14 elephants (Elephas maximus Linn.) by food poisoning. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 37:722–723. Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopiazonic_acid Fowler M.E. 2006. In: Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of Elephants. Ed. Fowler & Mikota, Toxicology Chapter 33, 422-423 Newspaper articles: The Nation Herold : Bandhavgarh elephant deaths: Suspected poisoning from kodo millet, samples sent to UP for probe. The Indian Express : How consumption of kodo millet led to the death of 10 elephants in MP . The Wire : Toxins in Kodo Millet Crop Caused 10 Elephant Deaths in Madhya Pradesh: Toxicology Report. To page top Kodo millet intoxication